Jade LaMarche
999445809
RLG404H1
Summer 2015
Table of Contents
1.
INTRODUCTION
2.
THE BIRTH OF
CAPITALISM
3.
RELIGION AND CAPITAL
a. Taming Nature
b. The Market God
c. Religious Illusions
4.
THE BIRTH OF
CONSUMERISM
5.
RELIGION AND
CONSUMPTION
a. Totemism
b. Obsession and Compulsion
6.
THE MODERN WORLD
a. Having
b. Dangers
c. A New Religion
d. The Existential Solution
e. Buddhism
7.
CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
In Alone With Others: An Existential Approach
to Buddhism Stephen Batchelor says,
Our age is fittingly called the
“space age. The astronaut in his technical and complex machine, effortlessly
orbiting the earth, alone and weightless in the emptiness of space, is the
perfect symbol of man today. Despite our domination over the forces of nature
and our highly developed technology, we have come to feel empty, without any
real inner purpose or meaning to our existence.[1]
With the rise of secularism in North America and
participation in organized religion on the decline, the worship and consumption
of Capital has replaced religious devotion. The growth and success of
Capitalism and Consumerism is built on an existential crisis where the “Market”
replaces God and Consumerism replaces ritual devotion. This paper draws on
sociological, psychological, and philosophical theories to illustrate the
dialectical relationship between religious theology and Capitalist consumer
culture over time. I draw on the theories of Max Weber and Edward Bernese to
discuss how Capitalism and Consumerism came to be worldwide phenomena. I draw
on Marx, Freud, and Feuerbach to discuss they ways that religious devotion was
predisposed to being posited onto Consumer culture. I conclude by taking a look
at some contemporary theories about the current economic, environmental, and
existential crisis that has arisen as a direct result of this fusion between
economic and religious forces.
THE
BIRTH OF CAPITALISM
Max Weber defines Capitalism
as the relentless quest for profits based on cost benefit calculations. Under a
Capitalist regime everything is priced and the cash nexus is the ruling force.[2]
Capitalism, says Weber, works according to three major principals; production
of commodities for profit rather than need satisfaction, wage laborers that
produce surplus, and machine-based production. The goal is market dominance and
profit maximization made possible through the lowering of production costs.[3]
In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of
Capitalism, Weber asks the question, why did Capitalism originate in the
West? Other countries like India, China, and the Islamic world were in a far
better position to be the setting of Capitalism with dense populations, skilled
crafts, and booming commerce. With the fall of the Roman Empire and the dark
ages, Europe was not the ideal place for Capitalism to emerge and yet it did.[4]
Weber believes the answer to this question is in Protestantism, claiming that the
relationship between Capitalism and Protestantism was that of “Elective
Affinity.”[5]
One did not cause the other but rather they intersected over time and grew in
dialogue with each other.
Protestantism began
in 1517 when Martin Luther, a charismatic German monk published the
“Ninety-Five Theses on Power and Indulgence” and posted it on the door of the
All Saints Church in Wittenburg, Germany.[6]
In his theses, Luther denounced the pope as the antichrist and the Catholic
Church as indulgent and corrupt. Luther pointed to Paul’s letter to the Romans,
which called for the “saving power of God for everyone who has faith.” He
utilized the Guttenberg press, which translated the bible from Latin to German and
other common languages so any Christian could read it. In this translation he
introduced the idea of “beruf,” a word that
in its original Latin form translated to “task” or “service” but in the German
version translated to “spiritual vocation.”[7]
This new Christianity
spread over the 16th and 17th centuries with the
introduction of a number of new branches including Calvinism, which became the
dominant religion in much of Europe by the beginning of the 18th
century. Calvin introduced the idea of “predestination” to the Protestant movement.
Within this theology, Christians were predestined to go to Heaven or Hell
before they were born. Saving grace was the inexplicable choice of God. This
created great psychological stress for Protestants.[8]
With predestination and no saving intermediary the Protestant Puritan stood
alone before God, which begged the question, how should faith be lived?
The protestant
movement answered this question with “practical pastoralism”, a way of life
that called for intense worldly action. Practical pastoralism urged members to
be self confident, finding signs of God’s election within worldly activity, to
resist sin and prosper in a calling.[9]
By restricting luxury, Protestants were encouraged to save capital and reinvest
it into their calling or enterprise. Poverty was taken as a sign of “sinful
slothness” and the poor were given the choice of workhouses or jail, working
for a pittance while the profit went to the owners who lived with “the
comforting assurance that the unequal distribution of the goods of this world
was a special dispensation of Divine Providence.”[10]
The Protestant Ethos garnered practical results. Capital was accumulated
through the ascetic compulsion to save and it was reinvested in the profits of
the calling, trade, or enterprise. Puritanism stood at the cradle of the modern
economic man[11]
and their vocational ethos now “prowls about our lives like the ghost of dead
religious beliefs.[12]
RELIGION AND CAPITAL
1.
Taming Nature
To
Sigmund Freud, religion and capital have been connected since the beginning of
civilization in man’s natural instinct to conquer nature. In The Future of an Illusion Freud
described what he believed were the two trends of civilization: knowledge and
the capacity to control forces of nature and extract wealth, and regulations
necessary for order in relations of man to distribute wealth.[13]
Nature, according to Freud, “restricts us be destroying us through the very
things that satisfy us”[14]
Through natural disasters and disease nature has continually put us in a
position of powerlessness. As a result we venerate and fear it by producing Gods
who exorcise the terrors of nature, reconcile man to the cruelty of fate, and
compensate for the suffering of civilized life.[15]
2. The
Market God:
In The Essence of Christianity, Ludwig
Feuerbach posited that theology is anthropology. In other words, man created
God out of his own consciousness, projected it outside himself, and then
subjected himself to his own creation.[16]
According to Feuerbach the construction of theology came from the human
tendency to have a strong inner and outer life. The nature of man is to
converse with himself in his consciousness. He is then at once “I” and “thou.”
He can put himself in the place of
another but he is nothing without an object in the outer world. Through
exploration of this object with his consciousness man learns to know himself.
Whatever we are conscious of we are always simultaneously conscious of our own
nature. So to Feuerbach, religion is consciousness of the infinite which then
reminds man of his infinite self. The very fact that we can perceive the
infinite proves that our own consciousness is infinite. “How couldst thou perceive
the divine by feeling it, if feeling itself were not divine in its nature.”[17] Thus
through gazing at the heavens, man is able to understand the infinite nature of
himself. This very consciousness makes us perfect and complete. “Every being is
in and by itself infinite – Has its God, its highest conceivable being, in
itself.”[18]
To Feuerbach, the problem with the religious God is that
it fancies itself to be superhuman,
contemplated and revered by humanity as another.
Religion knows nothing of its anthropomorphisms. To it they are not are not
anthropomorphisms.[19] The
new monotheistic God denies and condemns mans lower instincts. It is the
perfect human being, majestic and of the highest dignity. “Religious sentiment
is the sentiment of supreme fitness.”[20] If the divine subject is in reality created by
a human being, then putting a difference between man and God denies the
identity of the human and human nature is depreciated. “To enrich God, man must
become poor.”[21] In other words, to make God all, man must be nothing. Man
withdraws from himself and denies to himself what he attributes to God. We deny
our own knowledge and thoughts and place them onto God. We make God self
seeking and egotistical yet frown on that in every other being.[22] Religion
further denies goodness to man by making us wicked, corrupt, and incapable of
good.[23] In sum, “man projects his being into objectivity and then again
makes himself an object to this projected image of himself, thus converted into
subject.”[24]
Just as Feuerbach described religion, so is
our relationship with social systems. The human being created Capitalism,
projected it into an objective system, and then subjected ourselves to it. We
anthropomorphize the market with statements on the evening news such as, “the
Market is uneasy today,” as if it carries on a life of its own outside of our contributions
to its ethos. In Future of an Illusion,
Freud posits that humans are not inspired to give up their instincts naturally,
but are in fact coerced to do so by charismatic people in positions of power.[25] As Karl Marx said, Capitalism has created a
structure where we are “dominated, ruled, and possessed as a privilege from
heaven while rulers themselves possess greatness in inverse proportion to their
numbers.”[26] Unlike
Feuerbach, Karl Marx did not believe that all of humanity projected this Market
God, according to
Marx, the Capitalist dream is “the dream of the bourgeoisie, who universalizes
their interests as the interests of the whole society.” [27] David
Loy in his 1997 article “The Religion of the Market” wrote that capital has assumed
a separate independent vitality. Over time capital has ceased to be a servant
and has become a master. Like the
monster in Mary Shelly’s Frankenstein, the market now embodies the statement,
“you are my creator, but I am your master.”[28]
3.
Religious Illusions
Sigmund Freud
believed strongly that “religious ideas are illusions.”[29]
The characteristic of illusions, according to Freud, is that they are derived
from human wishes. We wished our Gods into being to protect ourselves from
harmful nature and we wished our religious systems into being to protect us
from harmful human instincts. To Freud, religion imposes on everyone its own
path to the acquisition of happiness and protection from suffering, “its
technique consists in depressing the value of life and distorting the picture
of the real world in a delusional manner by forcibly fixing them in a state of
psychical infantilism, and drawing them in a state of mass delusion, religion
spares many people an individual neurosis”[30] Marx believed that religion was
produced by civilization to provide illusory happiness to the lower working
class. To Marx, “the abolition of religion as this illusory happiness is the
demand of the people for their real happiness.” He called on people to give up
a condition that requires illusions.[31]
Freud believed that religion had contributed a lot to civilization - to taming
our instincts and bringing happiness to people’s lives – but not enough. To Freud
and Marx, religion would always be an illusion but “without religion man could
not suffer the cruelties of fate.” Both men believed that religion was on the
decline but suggested that it ultimately could not be removed without putting
another system in place.[32]
THE BIRTH
OF CONSUMERISM
Unbeknownst to Freud,
it was his ideas that set the Consumer agenda in motion.[33]
After World War One the banks were funding department stores and they needed
assistance upping profit.[34]
Freud’s nephew Edward Bernese was already famous for his contribution to
advertising American war efforts so he was charged with innovating a new
consumer culture. Bernese took Freud’s theoretical framework of psychoanalysis
and used it to manipulate the masses. People at the time were shopping out of
necessity but Bernese believed people could be trained from need to desire.[35]
In Freud’s book, Civilization and its
Discontents, he outlined how humans have a need to be controlled but that
very need leaves them perpetually discontent.[36]
To Freud and thus also Bernese, people couldn’t manage their instincts and
needed to be guided to make the right decisions. Bernese took this idea and
began his "engineering of consent."[37]
His first experiment was to persuade women to
smoke contrary to the fact that it was taboo at the time. He marketed
cigarettes as “torches of freedom”, adding the phallic element of the penis to
the cigarette which he believed would cater to women’s natural “penis envy”, an
idea Freud outlined in his theories.[38]
To Bernese, the trick was to move away from linking products to intellect or
rationality. Most products at the time were promoted in functional terms as a
necessity, emphasizing practical virtues. Bernese began linking products to
emotional desires and feelings, adding product placement in movies and
articles, linking Hollywood stars to products.[39]
Catering to our deepest desires and repressed instincts to inspire us to buy
was so successful that it catapulted Consumerism into a worldwide mass
industry.[40]
To Bernese, Consumerism
solidified the marriage between democracy and Capitalism, making people think that democracy
cannot exist without Capitalism, when in fact under a Consumerist agenda
democracy is reduced from active citizenry to passive people whose needs and
desires can be manipulated.[41]
World War One reaffirmed the dangerous forces present in people that needed to
be tamed, and by 1928 J. Edgar Hoover said that consumerism had become the
central motive in American life. Bernese had successfully turned people into
“constantly moving happiness machines.”[42]
He made the economy work and people were happy to be made docile for society.[43]
RELIGION AND CONSUMPTION
1. Totemism
According to Lyn
Thomas in her introduction to Religion, consumerism and sustainability:
Paradise lost?, “the term
consumerism implies that something more than consumption is taking place. It’s
not just the proliferation of goods to be acquired, it’s the symbolic value we
attribute them and our level of attachment to them.”[44] In
truth, the connection between religion and material worship happened long
before Capitalism and Consumerism were born. In early religion materials were often used to
represent symbols or totems and therefore they became emotionally powerful.[45] In Totem and Taboo, Freud discussed early
civilizations and their relationship with religious symbols. He believed that
ego instincts and libidinal instincts were directed toward an object. Similar
to Feuerbach’s belief that man is nothing without an object in the outer world
through which he can explore and thus come to know himself, Freud believed that
the narcissistic ego turned toward objects and thus became object libido.[46]
To Emile Durkheim, The totem in early civilization is “the visible representative
of the social religion of these races. It embodies the community, which is the
real object of veneration.”[47]
Tylor Frazer’s first psychological theories were based upon the belief in an
‘outward soul.’ The totem was meant to represent a safe place of refuge where
the soul is deposited in order to avoid the dangers that threaten it.[48]
In Shamans, Sorcerers and Saints, Bryan Hayden takes
a look at totemic practices in Shamanism. In these hunter-gatherer societies
materials are often used to represent symbols.[49]
Shamans almost universally employ a device called the “Axis Mundi” which
translates to axis of the world. It is usually a pole, tree, column, or shaft,
which connects this world with the realm of the spirits. The shaman travels to
the spirit realm down the Axis Mundi where they can reach an afflicted soul or
the enemy spirits and a battle ensues.[50]
In time, many households began to assign the hearth as the traditional axis
Mundi of the house. The ashes represented the underworld and the smoke reached
up to the heavens. Long before Santa Claus, the first Gods and Goddesses were
thought to come through the chimney when they visited the human realm.[51]
Coca-Cola universalized Santa Claus to sell their drinks, catering to our
ancient beliefs in the supernatural benevolence of a protector that comes down the
chimney. While totemic offerings were given to the Gods of the hunter-gatherer
societies, we put Coca-Cola next to the Christmas tree for Santa.
2.
Obsession and Compulsion
In Obsessive Actions and
Religious Practices Freud explored the uncanny similarities between religious
ritual and obsessive-compulsive behaviors. Any activities, according to Freud,
including going to bed at night can become obsessive actions if they're given a
repetitive and rhythmic order.[52]
Freud believed the need for obsessive neurosis and religious ritual was the
repression of inherent human instinctual impulses. He believed that people do
religious action without entirely concerning themselves with its psychological
significance; however, psychical displacement dominates the processes behind
obsessional neurosis[53].
This unconscious ritual process can be easily posited onto Consumer culture.
Where once religious leaders mimicked the seemingly anachronistic rituals of
their ancestors, now we listen to the sermons of the Market and line up for the
newest iPhone or video game. Where people once touched the sacred statues of
Jesus so many times that his foot is nearly rubbed off today, now women sit in
front of their television and order Faberge eggs to add to their collection.
THE
MODERN WORLD
1. Having
According to Sigmund Freud,
“civilization is a process in the service of eros.[54]”
What decides the purpose of life is the pleasure principal, which dominates the
operation of the mental apparatus from the start.[55]
The modern human, having been characterized by our acquisitiveness, is
motivated by the notion that the aim of personal existence is fulfilled in
proportion to what we are able to amass and possess.[56]
“In times such as ours, when secular and material values dominate social
and cultural life to an extreme degree, the intensity of the urge to have creates an ever widening gulf from
the awareness of who and what we are.[57]
Shopping has become a great national pastime. “Buy me in you want to be happy”
messages are so enticing that they overpower all other messages.[58]
Consumerism
offers an alternative explanation for our unhappiness than the previously
religious framework and it also offers and a new way to become happy, but according
to Stephen Batchelor this new solution of having
inevitably leaves us Alone with Others. “Anxiety, alienation,
loneliness, emptiness, and meaninglessness are the fruits of living as an
isolated subject amidst a multitude of lifeless objects. We wander around as
strangers in a lonely crowd.”[59]
2. A
New Religion
According to David Loy, our
current economic system should also be understood as our religion because it
has come to fulfill a religious function for us. It is a worldview with
ontology and ethics – the Market is the first “truly world religion.”[60]
Richard Sennett defines “The New Capitalism” as
a world where the global economy
is driven by multinational corporations and entrepreneurs who have lost any
local connections, roots or responsibilities, and where free floating
enterprises and individuals relocate wherever profit motives drive them. More
stable and lasting values are replaced by constantly mutating targets, desires,
and identities[61]
Weber’s sociology of religion describes two types of
religions, legalistic religions, which adapt themselves to the world, and
salvation religions, which are hostile to it. According to Loy, Market
Capitalism is a salvation religion.[62]
With the never satisfied desire for an ever-higher standard of living, “we
don’t give our surplus to God, the act of creating surplus is God.”[63]
Matthias Zick Varul in his 2008 article "After Heroism: Religion Versus
Consumerism", pointed out that the modern consumer is looking for
confirmation of their worthiness of character through consumption, just as the
modern producer, the puritan businessman, was seeking confirmation of their
worthiness through production.[64]
Todays Puritan American Protestants are far from anti-consumers. They express
their Christian beliefs and identity through a host of material goods and
images.[65]
3. Dangers
According to Zick
Varul, “one could indeed say that consumption has consumed theology.”[66]
From a religious perspective, however, the problems with Market Capitalism and
its values are twofold: greed and delusion. The unrestrained market requires
greed because the desire for profit and consumption fuels the entire system to
keep producing. But according to religion greed is an unacceptable instinct
that is based on the delusion that happiness can be attained by consumption.[67]
Trying to find meaning through greed amounts to idolatry in almost every
religious tradition other than Market Capitalism.
The problem with
Market Capitalism from a sociological perspective is social stratification. Marx
believed that “if one class is to stand for the whole of society then
all the deficiencies of society must be concentrated in another class.”[68]
Those who do not participate in Consumer culture are rejected and marginalized.
Just as the puritans labeled the inability to participate and produce “sinful
slothness’, the modern economy makes no room for the unemployed, they become as
Judith Butler says, lives that do not count, and are not “grievable.”[69]
According
to David Loy, Market systems are profoundly flawed in the sense that, left on
their own they will lead to inevitable environmental damage and destruction of
irreplaceable ecological systems. Under the rule of the Market Religion the
earth is objectified into a collection of resources to be exploited, and
humanity is reduced to a source of labour. Villagers were driven off their land
by new economic forces and communities disintegrated into aggregates of
individuals competing to attain private ends. “The market corrodes the very
shared community values it needs to restrain its excesses.”[70]
David Loy believes that the commodification of land, life, and community over
the last century is directly related to ozone holes and global warming today.[71]
“This impending ecological
catastrophe is awakening us to the fact that we need a deeper set of values
than Capitalism can provide.”[72]
Whether or not we believe in God I think we suspect that something is missing.
As Stephen Batchelor says, “a lack of being
remains unaffected by a plenitude of having.”[73]
4. The
Existential Solution
Lyn Thomas’s 2011 book Religion,
consumerism and sustainability: Paradise lost?, is a collection of essays that grew out of a conference held at the
London Metropolitan University in April 2006. The theme of the conference was
“Countering Consumerism: Religious and Secular Responses.” The decline in
religious participation opened up the space for the Market Religion to
flourish, but it also left us hungry for meaning and isolated from one another.
If the Capitalist and Consumerist
ethos has indeed left us socially, existentially, and financially bankrupt then
the solution lies in a system that can answer some of these existential
questions that are hidden behind our insatiable desire to shop. According to
David Loy, “we are struggling against the false religion of our time until we
redirect this spiritual urge back to its true path.”[74]
5. Buddhism
David Loy and Stephen Batchelor suggest that Buddhist philosophy offers
an array of answers to our ever-urgent existential questions and a solution to
managing our urges to consume. In Buddhism, “the insatiable desires of the
ego-self are the source of the frustration and lack of peace that we experience
in our daily lives. Overconsumption, which distracts and intoxicates us, is one
of the main symptoms of this problem. Unfortunately for us, such compulsiveness
does not allay our anxiety but feeds it.”[75]
The Buddha was a wealthy heir but he left his home of luxury in search of
greater meaning. He successfully made the transition from having to being.[76]
The Buddha’s teachings say that desire leads to suffering and true peace lies
in the cultivation of renunciation and generosity. To David Loy the solution is
interconnectedness. “If we can see that there is no me apart from you and no us
apart from the phenomena of the world then ownership begins to lose its
meaning. There can be no acquisitiveness if nothing is lacking.”[77]
It is imperative that we involve ourselves in an existential framework and
remind ourselves that we are connected both with the environment and with each other.
Feuerbach suggests that we come to understand the meaning of our selves through
conversation with the other so personal meaning must be acquired through the
re-introduction of connectedness. Marx believed that the proletariat (working
class) is the class that can dissolve all classes, and also dissolve the
existing world order.[78]
“If the human mind has created compelling and coherent visions to inspire the
flourishing of civilizations for the last five thousand years, surely the same
rich and diverse religious imagination will continue to activate the energies
and commitments needed to sustain life on the planet.”[79]
CONCLUSION
The decline in hereditary religion as a system that connected people
socially and provided answers to our existential and moral questions left an
opening for a new ontology to step in and dominate. Capitalism grew and
prospered alongside a critical development in Christianity that brought God
into the home. Consumerism flourished alongside a psychological crisis for
meaning that blurred the lines between sacred and profane and assigned totemic
status to everyday items, allowing us to bring a host of material goods into
the home. The result is a new religion of the Market God and a new site for
worship in the shopping mall. Where many previous religious social systems
emphasized connection between our fellows and the environment, this new system
encourages a dominating lone-wolf mentality that ultimately leaves us
disconnected. At one time we went to Church for social connection and entertainment.
Now each person can own a bible, a TV with Netflix, or a computer with
Facebook: hosts for entertainment and a simulated social life within the
comfort of our own homes. Our new system of meaning encourages having and
accumulating as an effective source of happiness but ultimately our existential
questions of being can never be
answered by a system of having.
According to Max
Weber, the problem is this,
the
Puritan wanted to work in a calling; we are forced to do so. For when
asceticism was carried out of the monastic cells into everyday life, and began
to dominate worldly morality, it did its part in building the tremendous cosmos
of the modern economic order. This order
is now bound to the technical and economic conditions of machine production
which today determine the lives of all the individuals who are
born into this mechanism (…) Perhaps it will so determine them until the
last ton of fossilized coal is burnt.”[80]
In researching this paper I asked the questions, how did Capitalism and Consumerism
come to be? And what sociological, psychological, and religious frameworks set
the stage for such developments? A look at the history of Capitalism and
Consumerism as well as the psychological, philosophical, and sociological
theories that accompanied it provides evidence for a close connection between
religion and Market dominance. Changes is the way religion was lived stood at
the foot of the birth of the Market God, and changes in the way religion is
lived today provide a very viable solution to replacing it.
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[1] Stephen Batchelor. Alone With Others: An Existential Approach
to Buddhism (New York: Grove Press, 1983): 43.
[2] Max Weber and Stephen Kalberg. The
Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. (London: Routledge Classics,
2011): xxviii-xlii
[6] Weber. Chapter 3: Luther’s
conception of the calling: task of investigation: 39-51.
[7] Weber, 39-51.
[9] Weber, 13-39.
[12] David R. Loy. “The Religion of the Market." Journal of the American Academy of Religion
65.2 (1997): 280.
[13] Sigmund Freud. The Future of an Illusion (Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, trans. James Strachey, 1927): 6
[14] Freud, 1927, 10
[15] Freud, 1927, 11
[16] Ludwig Feuerbach. The Essence
of Christianity. (New York: F. Ungar Pub. Co., 1957):
1-33.
[17] Feuerbach, 9.
[18] Feuerbach, 7.
[19] Feuerbach, 25.
[20] Feuerbach, 21.
[21] Feuerbach, 25.
[22] Feuerbach, 28.
[23] Feuerbach, 28.
[24] Feuerbach, 30.
[25] Freud, 1927, 7.
[28] David R. Loy. “The Religion of the Market." Journal of the American Academy of Religion
65.2 (1997): 279.
[29] Freud, 1927, 25-29.
[30] Sigmund Freud and James
Strachey. Civilization and Its
Discontents. (New York: Norton, 1930): 31.
[31] Marx, 244.
[32] Freud, 1927, 51.
[33] Adam Curtis, The century of
the Self. (Video, directed by Adam Curtis. UK: BBC Four, 2002).
[34] Curtis, 2002.
[35] Curtis, 2002.
[36] Curtis, 2002.
[37] Curtis, 2002.
[38] Curtis, 2002.
[39] Curtis, 2002.
[40] Curtis, 2002.
[41] Curtis, 2002.
[42] Curtis, 2002.
[43] Curtis, 2002.
[44] Lyn Thomas (editor). Religion, consumerism
and sustainability: Paradise lost? (Basingstoke
[England]: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011): 2.
[46] Sigmund Freud. Totem and Taboo: Some Points of Agreement between
the Mental Lives of Savages and Neurotics. Authorized Translation. (London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1950): 105.
[47] Freud, 1950, 158.
[48] Freud, 1950, 164-165.
[50] Hayden, 77.
[51] Hayden, 80.
[53] Freud, 1907, 124.
[54] Eros (The Life Instinct): in my reading of Freud I have come to
understand the term as the drive to sustain the life of the individual, as well
as the continuation of the species.
[55] Freud, 1930, 69.
[56] Batchelor, 25.
[57] Batchelor, 25.
[58] Loy, 278-287.
[59] Batchelor, 27.
[60] Loy, 275.
[61] Thomas, 1.
[62] Loy, 280.
[63] Loy, 281.
[64] Matthias Zick Varul. "After Heroism: Religion Versus
Consumerism. Preliminaries for an Investigation of Protestantism and Islam
Under Consumer Culture." Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations 19.2
(2008): 240.
[65] Zick Varul, 240.
[66] Zick Varul, 240.
[67] Loy, 286.
[68] Marx, 254.
[69] Thomas, 2.
[70] Loy, 277-283.
[71] Loy, 290.
[72] Loy, 276.
[73] Batchelor, 28.
[74] Loy, 288.
[75] Loy, 288.
[76] Batchelor, 33.
[77] Loy, 288.
[78] Marx, 256.
[79] Thomas, 4.
[80] Weber, 123.
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